Indonesia, with a population of 283.5 million and a GDP (PPP) of $4.7 trillion in 2024, faces significant air quality challenges linked to its transport sector. As an upper middle income economy in Southeast Asia, the country has experienced substantial economic growth—averaging 5.7% annually since 2010—alongside evolving patterns of transport-related emissions. The annual average population-weighted concentration of PM 2.5 decreased from 26.7 micrograms per cubic meter in 2000 to 20.8 in 2023, approaching the regional average of 20.2 for Southeast Asia in 2022. While this represents progress, the 2023 level still exceeds the World Health Organization's air quality guideline of 5 micrograms per cubic meter, though it remains below the interim target of 25 micrograms per cubic meter.

The transport sector's contribution to air pollution in Indonesia reveals a complex picture of modal distribution and emission trends. Transport and international shipping contributed approximately 12.4% and 1.0% to ambient PM 2.5 concentrations in 2019, according to the State of Global Air. By 2022, the transport sector accounted for 15% of total PM 2.5 emissions in the country. The modal breakdown shows domestic navigation as the dominant source, responsible for 63% of transport PM 2.5 emissions, while road transport contributed 37%, domestic aviation 1%, and rail effectively 0%. This distribution represents a notable shift from 2010, when road transport accounted for 43% and domestic navigation 57%, indicating the growing significance of maritime transport emissions. The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy estimates that 79% of Indonesia's urban population lives beyond 500 meters from highways, suggesting substantial exposure to traffic-related pollution for urban residents.

Emissions trends from Indonesia's transport sector have fluctuated considerably over the past two decades, with particularly notable changes occurring after 2010. PM 2.5 emissions from transport declined by 3.2% annually between 2000 and 2010 but reversed course to grow by 3.4% annually from 2010 to 2022. Similar patterns emerge across other pollutants: nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions declined by 1.7% annually before 2010 but grew by 3.1% thereafter; sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions declined by 1.5% before rising by 4.2%; and black carbon (BC) emissions decreased by 5.3% before increasing by 2.6%. By 2022, transport accounted for 29% of total NOx emissions and 5% of SOx emissions nationally. The road sector dominated methane (CH4) and non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC) emissions at 97% and 98% respectively, while SOx emissions were overwhelmingly from domestic navigation at 98%.

Within the road transport sector, heavy duty vehicles represent the primary emission source across multiple pollutants. According to estimates from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), heavy duty vehicles accounted for 83% of PM 2.5 emissions and 76% of NOx emissions from road transport in 2025, with light duty vehicles contributing 12% and 20% respectively. Motorcycles, despite their prevalence in Indonesia's transport mix, contributed only 4% to PM 2.5 and 2% to NOx emissions. An increasingly significant component of road sector pollution comes from non-exhaust sources: by 2022, resuspended dust, brake wear, and tire wear contributed 35% of road sector PM 2.5 emissions, up from 27% in 2010. In domestic navigation, large vessels accounted for effectively 100% of both PM 2.5 and NOx emissions, with inland waterway vessels and medium vessels contributing negligible amounts.

The health and economic consequences of transport air pollution in Indonesia are substantial and demand urgent attention. The World Bank estimates that 106,710 people died prematurely due to ambient PM 2.5 exposure in 2019, with McDuffie et al. (2021) attributing approximately 13,989 of these deaths specifically to transport tailpipe emissions. Additionally, at least 1,058 people died prematurely in 2023 from occupational exposure to diesel engine exhausts, equivalent to about 4 deaths per million population. The annual cost of health damages from ambient and household PM 2.5 exposure reached $220.1 billion in 2019, representing approximately 7% of Indonesia's GDP—a figure that compares favorably to the Asia-Pacific average of 10.6% but remains alarming given that Indonesia spent only 2.7% of GDP on healthcare in 2022.

Indonesia's energy consumption patterns in the transport sector reveal both challenges and opportunities for emissions reduction. In 2023, the road sector dominated total transport energy consumption at 84%, with domestic aviation, domestic navigation, and rail contributing 10%, 6%, and 1% respectively. Oil products constituted 69% of transport sector energy consumption, a significant decrease from 99% in 2010 and 98% in 2015. Biofuels have expanded to represent 30% of transport energy consumption by 2023, while electricity remains negligible at less than 1%. However, electricity consumption in the rail sector increased from 2% in 2010 to 9% by 2023, demonstrating potential for modal electrification. Indonesia's grid emission factor stood at 680 grams of CO2 per kilowatt-hour in 2024, higher than the Asia-Pacific average of 559 and Southeast Asia's 583, with improvement rates lagging regional trends at 0.3% annually since 2015 compared to 1.4% for Asia-Pacific.

Policy interventions and infrastructure development face significant structural challenges in addressing transport emissions. Between 2010 and 2015, fossil fuel subsidies in transport totaled approximately $104.6 billion, increasing to $117.6 billion during 2016-2023. These subsidies counteract emissions reduction efforts and distort market signals for cleaner alternatives. Electric vehicle imports reached $2.0 billion between 2017 and 2024, representing 21% of total road vehicle imports by 2024, with light duty vehicles comprising 93% of EV imports. The United Nations Environment Programme's E-mobility Readiness Index scored Indonesia at 86 out of 100, with relatively balanced scores across technology and market (22), policy (20), energy (20), and financial instruments (24).

Urban mobility patterns and infrastructure availability present additional dimensions to Indonesia's transport air pollution challenge. Motorization reached 528 vehicles per thousand population in 2024, up from 467 in 2000 and substantially exceeding the Asia-Pacific average of 317 in 2024. Rapid transit infrastructure remains limited: Indonesia had only 2.6 kilometers of rapid transit per million urban population in 2024, increased from 1.6 kilometers in 2015. Among Indonesia's 104 urban agglomerations, 82% lack adequate public transport coverage, with 8 out of 10 residents in these cities without convenient access to public transport. This infrastructure deficit perpetuates reliance on private motorized transport and contributes to continued growth in transport emissions despite economic development that could enable modal shifts and cleaner technology adoption.

EV in freight

EV mandates/ procurement

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