Bangladesh, home to 173.6 million people as of 2024, faces a mounting air quality crisis that threatens public health and economic development. With a GDP (PPP) of $1.7 trillion and per capita income of $9,647, this lower-middle-income South Asian nation confronts air pollution levels that far exceed international safety standards. The annual average population-weighted concentration of PM 2.5 reached 69.3 micrograms per cubic meter in 2023, having increased from 64.6 in 2000. This figure dramatically surpasses both the World Health Organization's air quality guideline of 5 micrograms per cubic meter and its interim target of 25 micrograms per cubic meter, positioning Bangladesh well above the South Asian regional average of 40.1 recorded in 2022.

The transport sector's contribution to this pollution burden proves substantial and increasingly complex. According to the State of Global Air, transport and international shipping contributed approximately 8.8% and 0.1% to ambient PM 2.5 levels respectively in 2019. However, the sector's footprint extends beyond these direct emissions. By 2022, the transport sector accounted for 29% of total PM 2.5 emissions in Bangladesh, a share that reflects both the sector's rapid growth and the changing composition of its emission sources.

The human cost of transport-related air pollution in Bangladesh is devastating. World Bank estimates indicate that 73,976 people died prematurely due to exposure to ambient PM 2.5 in 2019, with McDuffie et al. (2021) attributing approximately 6,465 of these premature deaths directly to transport tailpipe emissions. Occupational exposure presents additional risks, as evidenced by at least 342 premature deaths from diesel engine exhaust exposure in 2023, equivalent to roughly 2 deaths per million population. These health impacts translate into staggering economic losses. The World Bank estimated that annual health damages from ambient and household PM2.5 exposure amounted to USD 70.8 billion in 2019, representing approximately 9% of GDP—a figure comparable to the Asia-Pacific regional average of 10.6%. This pollution-related economic burden dwarfs Bangladesh's healthcare expenditure, which stood at just 2.4% of GDP in 2022, underscoring the profound mismatch between the scale of the health crisis and the resources allocated to address it.

Bangladesh's transport emissions profile reveals a sector expanding in tandem with economic growth, yet following divergent trajectories across pollutant types and transport modes. Since 2010, the country's GDP has grown by 10.5% annually, while PM 2.5 emissions from transport increased by 5.6% per year between both 2000–2010 and 2010–2022. Other sectors showed comparatively slower PM 2.5 emission growth at 4.8% annually since 2010. The modal distribution of transport PM2.5 emissions in 2022 presents an unexpected pattern: domestic navigation accounted for 44%, rail for 45%, road transport for 11%, and domestic aviation for 0%. Notably, the road sector's share declined from 17% in 2010 to 11% by 2022, while domestic navigation decreased from 55% to 44% over the same period. Within road transport, heavy-duty vehicles and buses constitute the largest emission sources, with IIASA estimating that in 2025, buses will account for 38% of PM 2.5 emissions, heavy-duty vehicles 21%, light-duty vehicles 36%, and motorcycles 5%. An often-overlooked dimension of road transport pollution comes from non-exhaust sources—resuspended dust, brake wear, and tire wear—which contributed 37% of road sector emissions by 2022, up from 30% in 2010.

The evolution of nitrogen oxide emissions follows a distinct pattern that highlights the sector's accelerating motorization. NOx emissions from transport grew by 9.3% between 2000–2010 before moderating to 3.3% growth between 2010–2022, even as other sectors experienced NOx emission growth of 8.4% annually since 2010. By 2022, transport accounted for 28% of Bangladesh's total NOx emissions, with road transport contributing 50%, domestic navigation 30%, rail 19%, and domestic aviation 0%. The road sector's share in transport NOx emissions declined from 62% in 2010 to 50% by 2022, with buses emerging as the dominant source at an estimated 56% in 2025, followed by heavy-duty vehicles at 29%, light-duty vehicles at 14%, and motorcycles at just 1%. Inland waterway vessels account for virtually all navigation-related NOx emissions.

Sulfur oxide emissions from Bangladesh's transport sector reflect the dominant role of waterborne transport and fuel quality. SOx emissions grew by 7.7% between 2000–2010 and 3.8% between 2010–2022, though other sectors showed far more dramatic growth at 18.3% annually since 2010. The transport sector's contribution to total SOx emissions stood at just 5% by 2022, but within transport, domestic navigation accounted for almost all emissions (99%), a share virtually unchanged from 2010. This concentration reflects the continued use of high-sulfur marine fuels in inland waterways. Road transport accounted for 0% throughout the period, whereas rail contributed a negligible 1%.

Methane and non-methane volatile organic compound emissions tell a story of technological transition and fleet modernization, albeit incomplete. Transport CH4 emissions increased by 18.8% between 2000 and 2010, then declined by 3.7% between 2010 and 2022, with the road sector accounting for 96% of transport CH4 emissions by 2022. NMVOC emissions declined by 8.5% in the earlier period before rebounding with 6.6% growth between 2010–2022, with road transport contributing 82% by 2022. Black carbon emissions, particularly concerning for climate and health, grew by 4.1% between 2000–2010 and 3.1% between 2010–2022. Domestic navigation accounted for 64% of black carbon emissions in 2022, up from 60% in 2010, while road transport's share fell from 37% to 29%, and rail accounted for 6%.

Bangladesh's transport sector remains heavily dependent on petroleum products, with limited diversification toward cleaner energy sources. By 2023, the road sector consumed 77% of total transport energy, with rail at 9%, domestic navigation at 13%, and domestic aviation at 1%. Oil products constituted 79% of transport energy consumption—a concerning increase from 64% in 2010 and 69% in 2015. Alternative fuels remain marginal, with biofuels and electricity representing just 0% and 1% respectively of the transport sector's energy mix by 2023. This fossil fuel dependency persists despite Bangladesh's relatively high grid emission factor of 694 gCO2 per kWh in 2024, which exceeds the Asia-Pacific average of 559 and is comparable to the South Asian regional average of 707. The country's power sector has regressed by 0.3% since 2015, contrasting with Asia-Pacific's 1.4% annual improvement rate.

The policy landscape around fuel subsidies has shifted dramatically, though structural challenges remain. Between 2010 and 2015, fossil fuel subsidies in transport averaged approximately 2.3 billion USD, but by 2016–2023, this figure had reduced to just 71 million USD. However, these subsidies continue to impose external costs on Bangladeshi society, with an estimated 24% of implicit subsidy-related externalities manifesting as additional local air pollution. Fuel tax revenues contribute approximately 1% of total government revenue, a share facing structural decline as transport electrification progresses—creating fiscal challenges for a government already allocating limited resources to environmental and health priorities.

Electric vehicle penetration in Bangladesh remains nascent but growing, reflecting both emerging market interest and persistent infrastructure constraints. Between 2017 and 2024, EV imports reached 596 million USD, representing 7% of total road vehicle imports by 2024. The composition skews heavily toward light-duty vehicles, which comprise 93% of EV imports, with two-wheelers at 7% and goods vehicles and buses at 0%. UNEP's E-mobility Readiness Index assigned Bangladesh a score of 77 out of 100, with specific ratings of 21 for technology and market, 20 for policy, 16 for energy, and 20 for financial instruments. These figures suggest moderate readiness but significant gaps in energy infrastructure and market development.

The broader trajectory of motorization underscores the urgency of sustainable transport solutions. Vehicle ownership has more than doubled from 15 vehicles per thousand population in 2000 to 32 in 2024, though this remains far below the Asia-Pacific average of 317. Yet, public transport infrastructure development lags dangerously behind. In 2015, Bangladesh had zero kilometers of rapid transit per million urban population; by 2024, this had increased marginally to just 0.4 kilometers. Among 139 urban agglomerations, only 2% achieved an access level of 50% or better, meaning that in the vast majority of cities, eight out of ten residents lack convenient access to public transport within 500 meters. This infrastructure deficit—combined with 12% of the urban population living within 500 meters of highways—creates a perfect storm of exposure to vehicular emissions while providing few alternatives to private motorized transport. The challenge confronting Bangladesh thus extends beyond emissions control to fundamental questions of urban planning, public transport investment, and the equitable distribution of mobility options across an increasingly urbanized population.

EV in public transport

EV mandates/ procurement

Railway electrification

CIESIN. (2023). SDG Indicator 11.2.1: Urban Access to Public Transport, 2023 Release: Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (SDGI). https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/sdgi-11-2-1-urban-access-public-transport-2023

EDGAR. (2025). GHG emissions of all world countries: 2025. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/9816914

Ember. (2024). Electricity Data Explorer [Dataset]. https://ember-energy.org/data/electricity-data-explorer

European Commission. (2024). Global Air Pollutant Emissions EDGAR v8.1 [Dataset]. https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dataset_ap61#sources

IEA. (n.d.). Fossil Fuel Subsidies – Topics. IEA. Retrieved October 31, 2024 https://www.iea.org/topics/fossil-fuel-subsidies

IHME. (2026). GBD Compare. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/

IIASA. (2025). GAINS Model Online—Greenhouse Gas—Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies. https://gains.iiasa.ac.at/models/

IRJ. (2024). IRJPro [Dataset].

ITDP. (2024). The Atlas of Sustainable City Transport. https://atlas.itdp.org/

Noll, B., Schmidt, T. S., & Egli, F. (2026). The electric vehicle transition and vanishing fuel tax revenues. Nature Sustainability, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-025-01721-7

State of Global Air. (2025). Air Quality: Population Weighted Concentration [Dataset]. https://www.stateofglobalair.org/data/#/air/table

Trademap. (2025). Trade Map. Trade Map. https://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx

UN DESA. (2025). 2024 Revision of World Population Prospects. https://population.un.org/wpp/

UN Energy Statistics. (2025). Energy Balance Visualization [Dataset]. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/energystats/dataPortal/

UNEP. (2024). E-Mobility Readiness Index. https://ndcpartnership.org/knowledge-portal/climate-toolbox/e-mobility-readiness-index

World Bank. (2022). The Global Health Cost of PM2.5 Air Pollution: A Case for Action Beyond 2021. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1816-5

World Bank. (2024). Current health expenditure (% of GDP). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS

World Bank. (2025). GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) [Dataset]. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD